It contains a greater number of semantic groups (very important concepts), the nouns
It contains a greater number of semantic groups (very important concepts), the nouns: summer, winter, storm, rain, ice, house, shop, room, coal, iron, hat, shirt, care, evil, hope, life, need, rest; the verbs: bake, burn, buy, drive, hear, keep, learn, make, meet, rise, see, send and others; the adjectives: broad, dead, deaf, deep.
The Main Problems of Lexicography.
Lexicography, the science of dictionary compiling, deals with the problems of form, meaning, usage & origin of vocabulary units.
I. The problem of classification of English dictionaries.
There are many different types of English dictionaries:
1) Linguistic dictionaries are word-books, their subject-matter is lexical units & their linguistic properties of use etc.
2) The encyclopaedic dictionaries are thing books that give information about the extra-linguistic world; they deal with concepts (objects & phenomena, their relations to other objects and phenomena etc).
a) According to the nature of their world list linguistic dictionaries may be divided into:
· general dictionaries (which contain lexical units in ordinary use with this or that proportion of items from various spheres of life);
· restricted dictionaries (make their choice only from a certain part of the word stock, the restriction being based on any principle (dictionaries of foreign words, terminological, phraseological, dialectal word books) determined by their compiler).
b) According to the information they contain linguistic dictionaries are divided into:
· presenting a wide range of data, especially with regard to the semantic aspect of the vocabulary items (explanatory dictionaries);
· dealing with lexical units only in relation to some of their characteristics, such as etymology, frequency of pronunciation (specialised dictionaries;
c) According to the language of explanation, all types of dictionaries are divided into:
· monolingual (information is given in the same language);
· bilingual (in another language).
d) According to the prospective user, all types of dictionaries are divided into:
· dictionaries for scholarly users;
· dictionaries for students;
· dictionaries for general public.
Thus, to characterise a dictionary one must qualify it at least from the different angles mentioned above.
II. Some basic problems of dictionary compiling.
The most important problems the lexicographers face are:
1. The selection of items for inclusion and their arrangement. The questions to be decided upon are:
a) The type of lexical units to be chosen for inclusion;
b) The number of items to be recorded;
c) What to select and what to leave out in the dictionary;
d) Which form of the language, spoken or written, or both, is the dictionary to reflect;
e) Should the dictionary contain obsolete and archaic units, technical terms, dialectisms, colloquialisms etc.
There have been 2 competing and disputing trends (approaches): normative and registrative.
Normative. Adherers of normative approach consider a dictionary an instruction as to proper usage of good words and forms. Samuel Johnson 1755 Dictionary laid the foundation of modern lexicography. A dictionary has to have a great influence on the usage of words in speech. Against contracted forms (don’t, can’t). It is due to S. Johnson’s dictionary the American phonetic system lacked in developing (orthoepic – changed, orthography - not).
Registrative: the dictionary should be mirror of language & speech. Webster’s International Dictionary, 1961present; the greatest number of units (600,000 entries). Outdated words and special terms are included. Today the criteria are the frequency usage for dictionaries of different balks and purposes.
2. The setting of the entries. The entries can be given in a single alphabetical listing or arranged in nests, based on some principles (e.g. in descending order of their frequency, in synonymic sets etc).
3. The selection, arrangement and definition of meanings. The choice of meanings depends on: 1) What aim the compilers set themselves; 2) What decisions they make concerning the extent to which obsolete, archaic, dialectal or highly specialised meanings should be recorded, how the problem of polysemy and homonymy is solved etc. The meanings of words may be given through a group of synonyms, description or so-called metalanguage (Oxf. Contemporary DIOCDMEJ1985 – 55,000 are explained through 2000).
There are three different ways in which the word meanings are arranged:
a) In the sequence of their historical development (historical order);
b) In conformity with frequency of use , i.e. with the most common meaning first (actual order);
c) In their logical connection (logical order).
Meanings of words may be defined in different ways:
a) by means of definitions that are characterised as encyclopaedic;
b) by means of descriptive definitions or paraphrases;
c) with the help of synonymous words and expressions;
d) by means of cross-references.
4. The illustrative examples to be supplied.
The purpose of these examples depends on the type of the dictionary & the aim the compilers set themselves. They can illustrate the first and the last known occurrences of the entry word with the successive changes in its graphic and phonemic forms as well as in its meaning, the typical patterns & collocations, the difference between synonymous words, they place words in a context to clarify their meaning & usage. The questions to be decided upon: when are illustrative examples to be used? Which words may be listed without illustrations? Should illustrative sentences be made up or should they always be quotations of some authors? Which examples should be chosen as typical?
5. The supplementary material.
It can be a list of geographical names, standard abbreviations pertaining to the public, political, economic & industrial life, rules of pronunciation, brief outlines of grammar etc.
The choice among the possible solutions depends upon the type to which the dictionary belongs, the aim the compilers pursue, the prospective user of the dictionary; the linguistic conceptions of the dictionary makers etc.
III. Some problems of compilation of learner’s dictionary.
Designed for foreign learners of English, learner’s dictionaries are characterised by their strictly limited word-list, the great attention is given to the functioning of lexical units in speech and their strong perspective orientation.
18. Etymological structure of the English vocabulary.
According to the origin, the word-stock may be subdivided into 2 main sets. The elements of one are native and the elements of the other are borrowed. The English vocabulary contains 70% of borrowings and 30% of native elements. The English grammar and English phonetic system remains English and this is the backbone of language system. Vocabulary is just the flesh.
Native words belong to the original English stock, as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the OE period (7th century AD) (Angles, Saxons and Jutes). The native words are further subdivided by diachronic linguistics into those of the Indo-European stock and those of common Germanic origin. The words having cognates in the vocabularies of different Indo-European languages form the oldest layer. The main semantic groups of these elements may be reduced to 1) numerals; 2) terms of kinship (mother, father, son, daughter, brother); 3) words naming the most important objects and phenomena of nature (sun, moon, star, wind, water, hill, stone, tree); 4) names of animals and birds (bull, cat, crow, goose, wolf); 5) parts of human body (arm, ear, eye, foot, heart). Some of the most frequent verbs are also of the I-E common stock: bear, come, sit, stand and others. The adjectives of this group denote concrete physical properties: hard, quick, slow, red, white.
A much bigger part of this native vocabulary layer is formed by words of the common Germanic stock, i.e. words having parallels in German, Norwegian, Dutch, Icelandic etc but none in Russian or French. It contains a greater number of semantic groups (very important concepts), the nouns: summer, winter, storm, rain, ice, house, shop, room, coal, iron, hat, shirt, care, evil, hope, life, need, rest; the verbs: bake, burn, buy, drive, hear, keep, learn, make, meet, rise, see, send and others; the adjectives: broad, dead, deaf, deep. Many adverbs and pronouns also belong to this layer.
Out of the whole bulk of I-E stock Germanic element makes up 80%. This native element appears very strong, powerful layer of the English language. They are still able to produce derivatives (both morphologic and semantic), are characterised by high frequency value and a developed polysemy. They have homonyms, they serve a synonymic dominante in the synonymic theories (make (native) – produce, create). They are often monosyllabic, they show great word-building power and enter a number of set expressions. In phraseology, it is the native word that is in the key position (meaning, most frequent component of a phraseological unit).
The foreign element appeared in the English language due to economical, political, cultural and other contacts with other countries of the world. The main contacts are the result of the main historical events in the British history: 1) 43 BC55 AD Roman Conquest; 2) 5 AD Saxon invasion; 3) 78th centuries Introduction of Christianity from Rome; 4) 810th centuries Raids from Scandinavia (Vikings) – Scandinavian invasion; 5) 1114th centuries (1066) Roman Conquest. French influenced the English language greatly. French influenced English for 2 centuries; 6) 1518th centuries Renaissance (Greek and Latin elements); 7) 1718th centuries the extension of British Empire. 1/5 of the land, “The sun never sets over the British Empire”; 8) globalisation; means contacts, US economic giant.
So, borrowings of the following (mentioned above) periods are:
1) The oldest element is Celtic: car, cosy, clan, kilt, sparrow, crowd, flannel, cardigan. Celtic element is mostly preserved in geographical names – dun/din, Dundee, Dunedin, Edinburgh;
2) The Anglo-Saxon invaders gave England its name and provided it with many common basic terms – man, bread, shire, house. 5th AD.
3) Third layer is Latin borrowings. This layer is divided into three layers connected with :
· Roman Conquest – street, chester, camp, wine;
· Introduction of Christianity – altar, creed, temple, disciple, apostle, divine, grammar, note, castle, fox, lake;
· Renaissance – art terminology, scientific terms (proper scientific): formula, sinuous, legal, inferior, superior, private, script, testimony.
4) French borrowings are divided into 2 layers:
a) Norman Conquest – strong influence up to now. Normans changed the face of the country. 1265 – First Parliament was set up. Semantic view of French borrowings may single out the following semantic groups which are the greatest in number:
· Legal terms – state, parliament, law, verdict, sentence, court, justice, to govern, minister, office, Empire;
· Military terms: cannon, ranks, lieutenant, colonel, major, general, war, also e.g. prove, jury, law, law suit, names of crimes, pledge, accuse, to convict, to err, nice, foreign, gentle. Sometimes it is difficult to differentiate between Latin and French borrowings.
b) Renaissance – terms of art, ballet, -ee: employee, refugee, examinee;
5) Scandinavian borrowings (78 c.) are mostly due to Danish raids; common, completely assimilated: sky, skirt, they.
6) Renaissance. Many scientific terms of Latin and Greek origin were borrowed. Greek borrowings are represented in 2 layers: 1) brought into Latin then French then into English; 2) seldom direct into English, e.g. criterion, phenomenon, anaphora, hyperbole, tele-, mega-, micro-, bi-, max-, demo-, -ism (semi-affixes), theory, athlete, hypothesis, geography, linguistic terms, physics, radius, compute, educate, history.
7) Italian borrowings (1618th c.) due to Renaissance as well: suffixes – umbrella, yellow, molto.
8) Russian borrowings – sputnik, sputnik step, a) pre-revolutionary; b) new – glasnost, perestroika, babushka, on the map of Alaska – Moscow, St. Petersburg.
9) Spanish – marine (terminological), cargo, junta ['nt] /AmE ['hnt], mosquito.
10) German – hamburger, frank, delicatessen.
11) Oriental (Turkish, Arabic) – zero, algebra, sugar, coffee, magazine (warehouse).
12) Worldwide. Latin and Greek are still used as a source of new words, particularly in the field of science, but English speakers today take words from a wide variety of other languages for phenomena that have no existing English name: telephone, button, tea, video, tattoo, sauna.
All the borrowings can be classified according to the type and degree of assimilation. They can be so-called: 1) borrowings proper – blitzkrieg, tutti-frutti, babushka, hamburger; 2) loans: a) translation loans – wall-newspaper, state farm, shock worker (ударник); b) semantic loans – pioneer (came back to English with a new meaning); 3) completely assimilated (old borrowings) – cheese, street, wine, fellow, husband, root, low, old, wrong, face, figure; 4) partially assimilated: a) loan words not assimilated semantically (denote objects peculiar to one country) – mantilla, sombrero, shah, rajah, sheik, krone (Denmark), rupee (India), zloty (Poland) etc; b) not assimilated grammatically (Latin, Greek) keep their original plural forms – crisis::crises, formula::formulae, phenomenon::phenomena; c) not completely assimilated in phonetics: machine, cartoon, police; d) not completely assimilated graphically: ballet, buffet, corps, caf, clich. III. Barbarisms (words from other languages used by English people in conversation or in writing but not assimilated in any way and for which there are no corresponding English equivalents).
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Составитель – Арабян Агаси. Москва 2007 год. Резюме. В настоящее время в нашей стране имеются уникальные условия для организации нового вида бизнеса: агентств по сбору просроченной задолженности от юридических и физических лиц (далее именуемые коллекторскими агентствами). Объемы банковского кредитования с каждым годом стремительно растут.
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Музыкально-философские системы античного мира
Если богослужебное пение есть результат исполнения Закона, данного Богом, то музыка есть результат следования закону естества, или закону природы, тварному закону. Богослужебное пение звучит там, где исполняется Закон Божий, а музыка звучит там, где исполняется закон природный. Но ведь как бы ни была извращена природа преступлением человека, все равно она есть творение Божие и, познавая ее, человек может познать и Бога.
